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The authoritative introduction to all aspects of plastics engineering -- offering both academic and industry perspectives in one complete volume.
Introduction to Plastics Engineering provides a self-contained introduction to plastics engineering. A unique synergistic approach explores all aspects of material use -- concepts, mechanics, materials, part design, part fabrication, and assembly -- required for converting plastic materials, mainly in the form of small pellets, into useful products. Thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, and advanced composites, the four disparate application areas of polymers normally treated as separate subjects, are covered together.
Divided into five parts -- Concepts, Mechanics, Materials, Part Processing and Assembly, and Material Systems -- this inclusive volume enables readers to gain a well-rounded, foundational knowledge of plastics engineering. Chapters cover topics including the structure of polymers, how concepts from polymer physics explain the macro behavior of plastics, evolving concepts for plastics use, simple mechanics principles and their role in plastics engineering, models for the behavior of solids and fluids, and the mechanisms underlying the stiffening of plastics by embedded fibers. Drawing from his over fifty years in both academia and industry, Author Vijay Stokes uses the synergy between fundamentals and applications to provide a more meaningful introduction to plastics.
* Examines every facet of plastics engineering from materials and fabrication methods to advanced composites
* Provides accurate, up-to-date information for students and engineers both new to plastics and highly experienced with them
* Offers a practical guide to large number of materials and their applications
* Addresses current issues for mechanical design, part performance, and part fabrication
Introduction to Plastics Engineering is an ideal text for practicing engineers, researchers, and students in mechanical and plastics engineering and related industries.
Vijay Kumar Stokes, PhD (Princeton), joined IIT Kanpur in 1964, where he served as the Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department (1974-1977) and as the Convener of the Nuclear Engineering and Technology Program (1977-1978). In 1978, he joined GE Corporate Research & Development, where for 15 years he worked on plastics. Professor Stokes is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Engineers (India), and the Society of Plastics Engineers.
Series Preface xxix
Preface xxxi
Part I Introduction 1
Outlines for Chapters 1 and 2
1 Introductory Survey 3
1.1 Background 3
1.2 Synergy Between Materials Science and Engineering 4
1.3 Plastics Engineering as a Process (the Plastics Engineering Process) 7
1.4 Types of Plastics 9
1.5 Material Characteristics Determine Part Shapes 11
1.6 Part Fabrication (Part Processing) 27
1.7 Part Performance 28
1.8 Assembly 32
1.9 Concluding Remarks 33
2 Evolving Applications of Plastics 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Consumer Applications 36
2.3 Medical Applications 67
2.4 Automotive Applications 70
2.5 Infrastructure Applications 77
2.6 Wind Energy 88
2.7 Airline Applications 90
2.8 Oil Extraction 91
2.9 Mining 92
2.10 Concluding Remarks 93
Part II Mechanics 95
Outlines for Chapters 3 through 8
3 Introduction to Stress and Deformation 97
3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Simple Measures for Load Transfer and Deformation 97
3.3 *Strains as Displacement Gradients 99
3.4 *Coupling Between Normal and Shear Stresses 101
3.5 *Coupling Between Normal and Shear Strains 102
3.6 **Two-Dimensional Stress 103
3.7 Concluding Remarks 105
4 Models for Solid Materials 107
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Simple Models for the Mechanical Behavior of Solids 107
4.3 Elastic Materials 108
4.4 *Anisotropic Materials 109
4.5 Thermoelastic Effects 111
4.6 Plasticity 113
4.7 Concluding Remarks 116
5 Simple Structural Elements 119
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Bending of Beams 119
5.3 Deflection of Prismatic Beams 123
5.4 Torsion of Thin-Walled Circular Tubes 127
5.5 Torsion of Thin Rectangular Bars and Open Sections 129
5.6 Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes 130
5.7 *Torsion of Multicellular Sections 131
5.8 Introduction to Elastic Stability 133
5.9 *Elastic Stability of an Axially Loaded Column 138
5.10 Twist-Bend Buckling of a Cantilever 142
5.11 Stress Concentration 142
5.12 The Role of Numerical Methods 145
5.13 Concluding Remarks 145
6 Models for Liquids 147
6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 Simple Models for Heat Conduction 147
6.3 Kinematics of Fluid Flow 149
6.4 Equations Governing One-Dimensional Fluid Flow 151
6.5 Simple Models for the Mechanical Behavior of Liquids 157
6.6 Simple One-Dimensional Flows 159
6.7 Polymer Rheology 171
6.8 Concluding Remarks 173
7 Linear Viscoelasticity 175
7.1 Introduction 175
7.2 Phenomenology of Viscoelasticity 176
7.3 Linear Viscoelasticity 179
7.4 Simple Models for Stress Relaxation and Creep 182
7.5 Response for Constant Strain Rates 189
7.6 *Sinusoidal Shearing 190
7.6.1 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) 191
7.6.1.1 DMA Curves for Three-Parameter Model 192
7.6.2 *Energy Storage and Loss 192
7.7 Isothermal Temperature Effects 193
7.7.1 Thermorheologically Simple Materials 194
7.7.2 Physical Interpretation for Time-Temperature Shift 195
7.8 *Variable Temperature Histories 195
7.9 *Cooling of a Constrained Bar 196
7.10 Concluding Remarks 196
8 Stiffening Mechanisms 199
8.1 Introduction 199
8.2 Continuous Fiber Reinforcement 199
8.3 Discontinuous Fiber Reinforcement 203
8.4 The Halpin-Tsai Equations 211
8.5 Reinforcing Materials 211
8.6 Concluding Remarks 213
Further Reading 213
Part III Materials 215
Outlines for Chapters 9 through 15
9 Introduction to Polymers 217
9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Thermoplastics 217
9.3 Molecular Weight Distributions 226
9.4 Thermosets 227
9.5 Concluding Remarks 227
10 Concepts from Polymer Physics 229
10.1 Introduction 229
10.2 Chain Conformations 229
10.3 Amorphous Polymers 234
10.4 Semicrystalline Polymers 240
10.5 Liquid Crystal Polymers 243
10.6 Concluding Remarks 245
11 Structure, Properties, and Applications of Plastics 247
11.1 Introduction 247
11.2 Resin Grades 248
11.3 Additives and Modifiers 248
11.4 Polyolefins 251
11.5 Vinyl Polymers 254
11.6 High-Performance Polymers 258
11.7 High-Temperature Polymers 265
11.8 Cyclic Polymers 271
11.9 Thermoplastic Elastomers 272
11.10 Historical Notes 273
11.11 Concluding Remarks 274
12 Blends and Alloys 277
12.1 Introduction 277
12.2 Blends 278
12.3 Historical Notes 282
12.4 Concluding Remarks 282
13 Thermoset Materials 285
13.1 Introduction 285
13.2 Thermosetting Resins 285
13.3 High-Temperature Thermosets 296
13.4 Thermoset Elastomers 304
13.5 Historical Notes 309
13.6 Concluding Remarks 311
14 Polymer Viscoelasticity 313
14.1 Introduction 313
14.2 Phenomenology of Polymer Viscoelasticity 313
14.3 Time-Temperature Superposition 319
14.4 Sinusoidal Oscillatory Tests 323
14.5 Concluding Remarks 328
15 Mechanical Behavior of Plastics 331
15.1 Introduction 331
15.2 Deformation Phenomenology of Polycarbonate 332
15.3 Tensile Characteristics of PEI 360
15.4 Deformation Phenomenology of PBT 363
15.5 Stress-Deformation Behavior of Several Plastics 376
15.6 Phenomenon of Crazing 387
15.7 *Multiaxial Yield 393
15.8 *Fracture 401
15.9 Fatigue 403
15.10 Impact Loading 412
15.11 Creep 419
15.12 Stress-Deformation Behavior of Thermoset Elastomers 419
15.13 Concluding Remarks 420
Further Reading 420
Part IV Part Processing and Assembly 421
Outlines for Chapters 16 through 21
16 Classification of Part Shaping Methods 423
16.1 Introduction 423
16.2 Part Fabrication (Processing) Methods for Thermoplastics 424
16.3 Evolution of Part Shaping Methods 429
16.4 Effects of Processing on Part Performance 431
16.5 Bulk Processing Methods for Thermoplastics 439
16.6 Part Processing Methods for Thermosets 440
16.7 Part Processing Methods Advanced Composites 442
16.8 Processing Methods for Rubber Parts 443
16.9 Concluding Remarks 445
17 Injection Molding and Its Variants 447
17.1 Introduction 447
17.2 Process Elements 447
17.3 Fountain Flow 462
17.4 Part Morphology 473
17.5 Part Design 475
17.6 Large- Versus Small-Part Molding 493
17.7 Molding Practice 504
17.8 Variants of Injection Molding 526
17.8.7 In-Mold Decoration and Lamination 552
17.9 Concluding Remarks 553
References 553
18 Dimensional Stability and Residual Stresses 555
18.1 Introduction 555
18.2 Problem Complexity 556
18.3 Shrinkage Phenomenology 556
18.4 Pressure-Temperature Volumetric Data 563
18.5 Simple Model for How Processing Affects Shrinkage 567
18.6 *Solidification of a Molten Layer 578
18.7 **Viscoelastic Solidification Model 585
18.8 **Warpage Induced by Differential Mold-Surface Temperatures 602
18.9 Concluding Remarks 609
19 Alternatives to Injection Molding 615
19.1 Introduction 615
19.2 Extrusion 615
19.3 Blow Molding 627
19.4 Rotational Molding 643
19.5 Thermoforming 659
19.6 Expanded Bead and Extruded Foam 669
19.7 3D Printing 670
19.8 Concluding Remarks 672
20 Fabrication Methods for Thermosets 675
20.1 Introduction 675
20.2 Gel Point and Curing 675
20.3 Compression Molding 678
20.4 Transfer Molding 681
20.5 Injection Molding 681
20.6 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) 683
20.7 Open Mold Forming 685
20.8 Fabrication of Advanced Composites 686
20.9 Fabrication of Rubber Parts 698
20.10 Concluding Remarks 708
21 Joining of Plastics 711
21.1 Introduction 711
21.2 Classification of Joining Methods 712
21.3 Mechanical Fastening 713
21.4 Adhesive Bonding 721
21.5 Welding 722
21.6 Thermal Bonding 723
21.7 Friction Welding 741
21.8 Electromagnetic Bonding 762
21.9 Concluding Remarks 770
Part V Material Systems 771
Outlines for Chapters 22 through 25
22 Fiber-Filled Material Materials - Materials with Microstructure 773
22.1 Introduction 773
22.2 Fiber Types 773
22.3 Processing Issues 774
22.4 Material Complexity 774
22.5 Tensile and Flexural Moduli 780
22.6 Short-Fiber-Filled Systems 784
22.7 Long-Fiber Filled Systems 817
22.8 *Fiber Orientation 833
22.9 Concluding Remarks 851
23 Structural Foams -Materials with Millistructure 853
23.1 Introduction 853
23.2 Material Complexity 855
23.3 Foams as Nonhomogeneous Continua 856
23.4 Effective Bending Modulus for Thin-Walled Prismatic Beams 860
23.5 Skin-Core Models for Structural Foams 863
23.6 Stiffness and Strength of Structural Foams 866
23.7 The Average Density and the Effective Tensile and Flexural Moduli of Foams 879
23.8 Density and Modulus Variation Correlations 884
23.9 Flexural Modulus 887
23.10 **Torsion of Nonhomogeneous Bars 890
23.11 Implications for Mechanical Design 898
23.12 Concluding Remarks 899
24 Random Glass Mat Composites -Materials with Macrostructure 901
24.1 Introduction 901
24.2 GMT Processing 901
24.3 Problem Complexity 904
24.4 Effective Tensile and Flexural Moduli of Nonhomogeneous Materials 906
24.5 Insights from Model Materials 909
24.6 Characterization of the Tensile Modulus 921
24.7 Characterization of the Tensile Strength 924
24.8 Statistical Characterization of the Tensile Modulus Experimental Data 934
24.9 Statistical Properties of Tensile Modulus Data Sets 943
24.10 Gauge-Length Effects and Large-Scale Material Stiffness 946
24.11 Methodology for Predicting the Stiffness of Parts 951
24.12 *Statistical Approach to Strength 962
24.13 Implications for Mechanical Design 969
24.14 Concluding Remarks 969
25 Advanced Composites -Materials with Well-Defined Reinforcement Architectures 973
25.1 Introduction 973
25.2 Resins, Fibers, and Fabrics 974
25.3 Advanced Composites 977
25.4 Rubber-Based Composites 990
25.5 Concluding Remarks 1008
Index 1011
