The most fundamental element of representative democracy is the electoral system--translating citizens' votes into representatives' seats. Electoral systems are also the most practical and accessible instrument available to democratic reformers. This systematic and comprehensive study
describes and classifies 70 electoral systems used by 27 democracies including those of Western Europe, the United States, Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, India, Israel, Japan, and New Zealand. Using comparative and statistical analysis of these systems, Arend Lijphart demonstrates the effect of the
electoral formula used, the number of representatives elected per district, electoral thresholds, and five other key features of electoral systems on the proportionality of the election outcome, the degree of multipartisanism, and the creation of majority parties. In the process, he reveals that
electoral systems are neither as diverse nor as complex as is usually assumed. The most definitive treatment of the subject since Rae's classic study in 1967, this book is based on more accurate and comprehensive data covering more countries and a longer time-span and uses stronger hypotheses and
better analytical methods. The unique information and analysis it offers will make it essential reading for scholars and students of comparative politics.

• 12: Introduction; Goals and MethodsElectoral Systems: Types, Patterns, Trends


• 3: Disproportionality, Multipartism, and Majority Victories


• 4: Changes in Election Rules Between Systems in the Same Country


• 5: Bivariate and Multivariate Analyses


• 6: Four Other Potential Explanations


• Appendices:


• 7: Electoral Engineering: Limits and Responsibilities


• Appendices


• A: Proportional Representation Formulas


• B: Indices of Disproportionality and Party System Characteristics


• C: Data: Sources, Additions, Corrections, Clarifications

Arend Lijphart is President-Elect of the American Political Science Association and is the author of a large number of other books including: Power-Sharing in South Africa (University of California, 1985) Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in 21 Countries (Yale University Press, 1984 [new ed. forthcoming]) Electoral Laws and their Political Consequences (ed. with Bernard Grofman, Agathon Press, 1986) Choosing an Electoral System: Issues and Alternatives (ed. with Bernard Grofman, Praeger, 1984) Parliamentary vs Presidential Government (ed, OUP, 1992)