3. Greater sensitivity to European work: We have can cut common experience so close to the bone. long felt very close to European social psychol­ In the present volume we wish to share what we ogy, and the European responsiveness to the first believe to be some of the most significant and edition suggested that we were communicating stimulating insights to emerge from social psy­ with this audience. Further, there has been a chology, from its birth to the present. Our writ­ steadily increasing awareness among American ing has been guided in particular by the follow­ and Canadian social psychologists of significant mg concerns: work in Europe. We thus made a special effort in the second edition to reflect this work. No, we Theoretical coherence The emphasis on the­ did not succeed in capturing all the work of im­ oretical ideas begins in the first chapter; we portance. Space limitations and organizational compare the behaviorist, cognitive, and rule­ requirements also meant that work of many wor­ role orientations. We believe that these para­ thy colleagues in the United States and Canada digms form the generating context for subse­ was not included. However, we do feel that the quent chapters. We show how these perspectives present volume is superior to all others in its have influenced the questions that have been integration across continents. asked and the explanations that have been of­ fered for various kinds of social behavior.

1 Theory and Research in Social Psychology.- What Is Social Psychology?.- The Shaping of Modern Social Psychology.- Theory in the Development of a Scholarly Profession.- The Development of Observational Skills.- Purposes of Theory.- Theory and Social Understanding.- Theory as a Sensitizing Device.- Theory as Liberation: The Critical Approach.- The Fruits of Research.- The Documentation of Social Life.- Social Prediction.- Demonstration of Theory.- Major Theoretical Paradigms in Social Psychology.- The Behaviorist Paradigm: A Living Tradition.- The Cognitive Paradigm: Turning Inward.- The Rule-Role Paradigm. Focus on Relationships.- Summary.- Theoretical Perspectives and Human Values.- Research Methods in Social Psychology.- Archival Study: Adventures in History.- Field Observation.- Interviews, Diaries, and Surveys.- Experimental Research.- Experimenter Bias.- Subject Selection.- Meta-Analysis.- Ethical Issues in Research.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 1-1 Two Early View of Social Psychology.- Box 1-2 The Politics of Social Knowledge.- Box 1-3 Gestures Across Space and Time.- 2 The Construction of the Social World.- Foundations of Social Perception.- Concepts: Sources of Survival.- Conceptual Biases: Sources of Dismay.- Concepts and the Lost Person.- Concepts and Leftover Reality.- The Development of Concepts.- Natural Categories and Social Prototypes.- Concept Learning.- Lighting a Fire with Language.- Concept Application: People Making.- Criteria of Family Resemblance.- Motivated Perception: Desire on the Loose.- The Context and the Base Rate.- The Organization of Social Understanding.- Bottom Up: From Asch to Association.- Top-Down: The Self-Interested Schema.- Going Beyond the Information Given.- Person Memory.- Which Schema Wins: TheCase of Priming.- Summary.- Attribution of Causality.- Scientists in Miniature: The Kelley Model.- The Rule of Distinctiveness.- The Rule of Consensus.- The Rule of Consistency.- The Choice of Rules.- The Differing Perspectives of Actor and Audience.- Self-Serving Bias in Causal Attribution.- In Search of True Cause.- The Social Negotiation of Reality.- Ethnomethods: The Process of Worldmaking.- The "Natural Attitude": Mistaking Convention for Reality.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 2-1 The Perils of the Intuitive Scientist.- Box 2-2 The Fundamental Attribution Error and Judging the Poor.- Box 2-3 The Social Construction of Natural Science.- 3 The Self.- The Development of the Self.- The Looking-Glass Self.- Social Comparison: Beware of Your Companions.- Role Playing: Mask or Reality?.- Social Distinctiveness: "How Do I Differ?".- Self-Maintenance Strategies: Holding Oneself Together.- Self-Verification: The Production of a True Self.- Biased Attention.- Biased Interpretation.- Affiliation and Presentation.- Information Processing and Self-Maintenance.- Balancing Stability and Change.- Understanding the Emotions.- The Biological View: Emotions as Universals.- The Cognitive View: Attributing Emotions.- The Constructionist View: Emotion as Performance.- The Social Management of the Self.- Self-Presentation, Scripts, and Negotiation.- Self-Monitoring: Toward Improved Strategy.- Self-Awareness: Reflexivity and Standards.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 3-1 Memory Makes It So.- Box 3-2 Social Accountability and Selfhood.- Box 3-3 Self-Handicapping: How to Avoid Losing.- 4 Interpersonal Attraction.- The Creation of Attraction.- The Power of Proximity.- Familiarity and the Mere Exposure Hypothesis.- Rules ofDistance: It's Not Who You Are But Where You Are.- Summary.- Physical Beauty.- Initial Attraction: Fair Faces Make Unfair Races.- After the Ball Is Over: The Social Effects Of Beauty.- Beauty Reexamined.- Personal Similarity.- The Joys of Similarity.- Similarity and Complementarity.- Positive Regard: All You Need Is Love.- Information Please: Affiliation and Birth Order.- Close Relationships.- The Course of Intimacy.- A Common Road to Closeness.- Curves in the Road to Closeness: Dialectics and Danger.- Models of Love in Cultural and Historical Perspective.- Long-Term Relationships: Is There Hope?.- Sununary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 4-1 What Makes a Person Beautiful?.- Box 4-2 Loneliness.- 5 Prejudice and Discrimination.- Prejudice and Discrimination: What Are They?.- The Effects of Discrimination.- Target: Self-Esteem.- The Will to Fail.- Discrimination Is Self-Fulfilling. The Pygmalion Effect.- Protest Against the Liberal Line.- Roots of Prejudice.- Early Socialization: Setting the Stage.- The Case of Authoritarianism.- The Media and Prejudice.- Summary.- Prejudice and Payoff.- Intergroup Competition and Social Identity.- Dissimilarity Breeds Discontent.- Summary.- The Maintenance of Prejudice.- Social Support: Sharing Prejudices.- Attitude Salience: At the Top of the Mind.- Stereotypes: Convenient Quicksand.- A Cognitive Base for Stereotypes.- Stereotypes: Pro and Con.- Reduction of Prejudice.- Contact: When Does Getting Together Help?.- Education and the Reduction of Prejudice.- Consciousness Raising.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 5-1 Homophobia: Hatred of Homosexuals.- Box 5-2 Stigma.- Box 5-3 Androgyny: Toward a New Gender.- 6 Attitude Change.- Attitude Structure.- Accessibility and Centrality of Attitudes.-Cognitive Balance.- Communication and Persuasion.- The Communicator.- Communicator Credibility and the Sleeper Effect.- Communicator Attractiveness.- Expressed Intention: The Effects of Forewarning.- The Message.- One Side, Two Sides, and a Conclusion.- The Wages of Fear.- The Communication Channel.- The Audience.- Positive Bias: Agreement at Any Cost.- Inoculation Against Persuasion.- Personality and Persuadability.- The Communication Environment.- Summary.- Cognition and Attitude Change.- Cognitive Dissonance.- Changing Attitudes Through Changing Behavior.- Forced Compliance: When Reward Fails.- Selectivity in Exposure, Learning, and Memory.- Summary.- Information Processing.- Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion.- Environmental Information.- Self-Perception: "To Be Is to Do".- Memory Scanning: Self-Generated Attitude Change.- Summary.- Attitudes and Behavior: The Critical Question.- Answering the Attitudes-Behavior Question.- The Fishbein Model for Behavioral Prediction.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 6-1 Measuring Attitudes: Which Coke for You?.- Box 6-2 Assimilation Versus Contrast: Dividing the World into Black and White.- Box 6-3 When Prophecy Fails.- 7 Altruism: Giving and Receiving Help.- Assessing One's Self: Personal Gain Through Giving.- Does the Action Bring Pleasure?.- Can I Avoid Pain? The Empathic Response.- Do I Have the Resources to Help? The Warm-Glow Effect.- Summary.- Assessing the Needy.- Is the Need Noticeable? The Problem of Self-Preoccupation.- Is Help Deserved? The Just-World Hypothesis.- Is the Recipient Attractive?.- Summary.- Assessing the Social Context.- Are Other Helpers Available? Bystander Intervention.- Is There Safety in Numbers?.- Who Is Helping? The Effects of Norms and Models.- Summary.-Are There Good Samaritans Among Us? Socialization Versus Situationism.- Is the Child the Parent of the Adult? Longitudinal Research.- Transsituational Consistency in Character.- Is Situationalism the Answer?.- The Interactionist Solution.- Reactions to Help: When Gifts Prove Unkind.- Aid as Manipulation.- Aid as a Threat to Self-Esteem.- Aid as an Obligation.- Summary.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 7-1 Dead on Arrival ... Or Is He?.- Box 7-2 Crime and the Not-So-Innocent Bystander.- Box 7-3 Help Seekers: Tattered or Tactical?.- 8 Aggression.- Defining Aggression.- The Biological Basis of Aggression.- The Instinct to Aggress.- Does Biology Dictate Destiny?.- Learning to Be Aggressive.- Reward and Punishment in Action.- Modeling: Seeing Is Being.- The Plight of the Punishing Model.- The Effects of Media Violence.- Emotion and Aggression.- Frustration and Aggression.- Generalized Arousal and Aggression.- Sex, Pornography, and Aggression.- Drugs and Aggression.- Reducing Aggression: The Emotional Approach.- Catharsis: Getting It Off Your Chest.- The Rechanneling of Arousal.- Summary.- Aggression as Cultural Drama.- The Cast: Definition and Deindividuation.- Props and the Presence of Weapons.- Scripts of Violence.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 8-1 The Battered Child.- Box 8-2 Rape.- Box 8-3 Sports and the Violent Spectator.- 9 Social Influence.- The Whys of Uniformity.- Following the Rules: Social Norms.- Following the Model: Social Contagion.- Social Comparison: When in Doubt.- Conformity and Obedience.- The Asch Findings: The Problem of Believing One's Eyes.- Advances in Understanding Conformity.- Is There a Conforming Personality?.- Obedience to Authority.- Conditions of Obedience.- The Obedience Controversy.-Summary.- The Effects of Power on the Powerful.- Negative Effects of Power: The Stanford Prison Study.- Power Corrupts: From Acton to Kipnis.- Resistance to Influence.- Psychological Wellsprings of Independence.- Reactance: The Need to Be Free.- Uniqueness: The Need to Be Different.- Altering the Conditions for Social Control.- Social Support for Nonconformity.- Influence Techniques: Do You Want to Buy the Brooklyn Bridge?.- Minority Influence.- Moving the Majority.- Behavioral Style of the Winning Minority.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 9-1 The Side Effects of a College Education: The Bennington Study.- Box 9-2 Having Your Own Way: Power Strategies in Close Relationships.- Box 9-3 Persuasion Without Words: The Nonverbal Element.- 10 Exchange and Strategy.- Fundamentals of Exchange and Accommodation.- Rules of Exchange.- Resource Theory: Rules of Kind.- Equity Theory: Rules of Amount.- Underreward: The Psychology of Getting Even.- Overreward: Punishment or Perceptual Change?.- Equity Versus Equality.- Summary.- From Exploitation to Cooperation.- Mixed Motives and the Prisoner's Dilemma.- Exploitation in Mixed-Motive Exchange.- Multiple Paths to Cooperation.- The Strategy of Cooperation.- The Strategy of Playing It Tough.- The Tit-for-Tat Strategy and the Gritty Road to Peace.- Threat and Cooperation.- From Individual to Community: Social Traps and the Public Good.- When Communication Fails.- Steps Toward Successful Negotiation.- Third Party Mediation.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 10-1 Intrinsic Reward and the Creative Person.- Box 10-2 Entrapment: Too Much Invested to Quit.- Box 10-3 A Personalized Approach to Resolving Conflict: The Case of Herbert Kelman.- 11 Interaction in Groups.- Attraction in Groups:The Question of Cohesiveness.- Building Group Cohesiveness.- Barriers to Cohesiveness: Competition and Subgroups.- The Fruits of Cohesiveness: Sweet and Bitter.- Cohesion and Contentment.- Cohesion and Catastrophe: Groupthink.- Summary.- The Individual and the Group: Freedom and Social Facilitation.- Freedom and the Question of Deviance.- Rejection of the Deviant.- The Group Confronts the Individual: Social-Impact Theory.- Summary.- Social Faciliation: Doing One's Best in Groups.- Arousal or Apprehension?.- When Social Facilitation Fails.- Diffusion of Responsibility and the Social Loafer.- The Group at Work: Produce or Perish.- Biases in Group Decision Making.- Predispositions.- Minimally Acceptable Solutions: The Case Is Closed.- Choice Shifts: Risky and Tame.- Summary.- Toward Improving Group Decisions.- Selecting the Communications Structure.- Selecting the Membership.- Selecting the Strategy.- Leadership in Groups.- Early Research: Democracy Over All.- The Right Person for the Right Time: The Fiedler Approach.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 11-1 Groups for Human Potential.- Box 11-2 The Problem of Shyness.- Box 11-3 Social Representation: Constructing Reality in Groups.- 12 Social Psychology and Physical Well-Being.- Detecting and Reporting Illness: The Rocky Road to Treatment.- Noticing Symptoms.- Interpreting Symptoms.- Doing Something About Symptoms.- Social Factors in the Cause of Illness.- Stress: The Secret Strangler.- The Loss Effect: Will One Survive?.- Cardiovascular Disorders and the Type A Personality.- Summary.- Helplessness and Health.- Help for the Helpless.- Internal Versus External Control: The Self-Fulfilling Belief.- Controversial Conclusions.- The Social Ecology of Treatment.- Biofeedback.- Coping Strategies.-Mastering the Situation.- Seeking Information.- Passive Coping: The Relaxation Response.- Cognitive Restructuring.- Social Support Networks.- Summary.- Toward an Ounce of Prevention.- Identifying the Hardy.- Information with a Purpose.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 12-1 Sex, Secrets, and Sickness.- Box 12-2 Villainous VD and the Modern Victorians.- Box 12-3 The Management of Pain.- 13 The Application of Social Psychology.- The Physical Environment for Good or Ill.- Architecture: Privacy and Community.- The Experience and Effects of Crowding.- Environmental Noise: Does It Matter?.- The Ecological Approach to Environmental Issues.- Social Psychology and Law.- The Witness: How Far Can We Trust?.- The Defendant: The Winning Smile.- The Lawyer: Winning Words.- The Jury: Reaching Consensus.- Building for the Future.- Social Indicators: Reactive Planning.- Evaluation Research: Proactive Planning.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 13-1 Black Rooms: The Social Effects of the Dark.- Box 13-2 Social Psychology Selects the Jury.- Box 13-3 No Sense of Place: Electronic Media and Social Behavior.- Copyrights and Acknowledgments.- References.- Index of Names.- About the Authors.